Unsung Heroes of the Ancient World

Alexander the Great and Socrates are household names. But what about antiquity's lesser-known figures-the intellectuals, inventors, queens, and con men who shaped history for better and for worse? Kick off the course by getting to know Cimon, a Greek politician and military general, who helped transform Athens into a world power.

Long considered the cradle of democracy, Greece was also home to despotic governments—many of them quite successful. Become acquainted with one of Greece’s most impressive tyrants: Polycrates of Samos. Survey the tremendous military, economic, and material successes that transformed Samos from a sleepy island to a major regional power under his leadership.

When we think of ancient Greek city-states, we most often think of Athens and Sparta. But in 400 BC, the quiet city of Thebes surged to the top, led by the frugal but fierce Epaminondas. See how Epaminondas organized a potent fighting force in his home region to throw off the yoke of Spartan oppression.

Turn your attention to two obscure Alexandrian inventors: Ctesibius and Hero. See how the inventions of the pump, improved water clock, and catapult of Ctseibius redefined pneumatics to shape the material world we live in today. And, look closely at the ingenuity behind some of Hero’s most elaborate inventions—from automated puppet theaters to holy water vending machines.

Athletes enjoyed near mythic reverence and popularity in the ancient world. Get to know some of the amateur sportsmen who dominated athletics thousands of years ago, like the skilled wrestler Milo of Croton, the powerful boxer Theagenes of Thasos, the Diagoras of Rhodes sports dynasty, and master long-jumper Phayllus of Croton.

One of the most fearsome empires in world history, Rome encountered rebellion and resistance from a host of defiant subjects, with the most potent threat being a charismatic and cunning North African prince named Jugurtha. Examine Jugurtha’s brutal rise to power within Numidia, before reflecting on the legacy he left behind.

Born under a passing comet and divinely marked by lightning, Mithridates of Pontus contended for power in 119 BC. Survey the Pontic leader’s bloody conquest across Asia Minor. Investigate how Rome responded to these burgeoning territorial ambitions, both militarily and politically. And, reckon with the mysterious astrological events that punctuated Mithridates’s life.

Carefully crafted maps and tourist guidebooks have gotten us where we need to go for centuries. Among the most influential geographers in antiquity were Strabo and Pausanias. What was the role of the travel writer in antiquity? And how did Strabo and Pausanias revolutionize the craft?

In the study of ancient history, women are strikingly absent from the written record. That is largely why Clodia Metelli—a Roman woman whose name repeatedly shows up in speeches, poems, and letters—is so unique. Explore the political struggles and sex scandals that made Clodia Metelli famous among her peers.

A brutal power struggle followed the death of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Among those jockeying for influence was Sextus Pompey, a capable admiral who came dangerously close to seizing control of Rome. Dive into his life, from his illustrious upbringing to the military and political opportunities he failed to grasp in his prime.

Emperor Augustus seized power in Rome after the Second Triumvirate collapsed in 27 BC, but he could not have done it without his childhood best friend, Agrippa. Explore how this unique partnership boosted Augustus’s position in the succession battle. Then, survey Agrippa’s public works contributions to Rome’s burgeoning capital city.

In times of profound military or political crisis, women can find paths to transcend restrictive gender roles. And that's precisely what happened during the Roman Civil War. Investigate how one woman, an aristocrat named Turia, navigated complex legal and political challenges to avenge her parents' murder and protect her husband from persecution.

Shockingly enough, Roman soldiers spent more time building than they did fighting. Meet some of the engineers at the helm of public works projects in ancient Rome. Begin with a deep dive into Vitruvius’s philosophy of architecture, before turning your attention to Frontinus, a general-turned-engineer who revolutionized the Roman waterways.

Antiquity was full of enterprising women who catapulted to power in the unlikeliest of circumstances. Learn about Mousa, a slave who ascended to the Parthian throne alongside her teenage son. And, get to know both Eumachia and Plancia Magna, a pair of wealthy Roman priestesses who transformed their communities through patronage.

Pliny the Elder—so engrossed by his studies that he slept just a few hours a night to make time for reading—authored what might be considered the first encyclopedia. Survey Pliny’s early life as a Roman officer and part-time scholar before breaking down the scope and impact of his crowning intellectual achievement, The Natural History.

Cicero’s enduring fame is proof that speechmaking lay at the heart of public life in classical Rome. But he was not the only Roman who inspired public speakers and their educators. Meet the clever man behind one of the most respected oratory manuals in antiquity: Marcus Fabius Quintilianus.

Though seen as arrogant in his personal dealings, the ancient physician Galen excelled in the delicate craft of medicine. Examine his unconventional methods, from opium and cinnamon potions to public vivisection. And, catalog his stint as a practicing physician, first to Rome’s most fearsome fighters and then to a string of its emperors.

As the story of Spartacus has shown, the oppressed underclass could pose a potent threat to Rome. See how Eunus, a mere house servant from Syria, incited a brutal slave rebellion in the Roman province of Sicily. And, study the life and impact of Bulla, a roadside bandit who harassed wealthy travelers with Robin Hood-like fervor.

Sassanian Kings Ardashir and Shapur are among the only leaders in history to take on Rome successfully. Survey the political history of Ancient Persia, from Alexander the Great’s invasion to the rebellion that formed the Sassanian Empire. Dissect Kings Ardashir and Shapur’s military clashes with Rome—one of which ended in an emperor’s humiliating capture.

Greece and Rome did battle with many queens, the most famous of which was Cleopatra. But what about the lesser-known female leaders who went toe-to-toe with the ancient world’s most powerful polities? Become acquainted with Artemisia and Zenobia, fearsome warrior queens who cast gender role decorum aside and suited up for war.

Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle dominate ancient philosophy. But women, too, lived the life of the mind in antiquity. Listen to Hypatia's tragic story, from her command of Alexandrian public life to her gory demise at the hand of zealots. And, reconstruct the life of Sosipatra, a woman philosopher and ethicist active in Asia Minor.

Shift your focus to ancient anti-heroes. Start with Percennius the Mutineer, a master manipulator who could whip up theater audiences and disgruntled Roman soldiers alike. Then, explore just how Zenothemis and Hegestratus, conniving fraudsters from ancient Athens, sought to capitalize on a botched maritime insurance scheme.

Continue your survey of ancient swindlers with the false prophet Alexander Abonoteichus. Follow Alexander's ascent from quack country doctor to influential cult leader, breaking down the high-level illusions and trickery that deceived even powerful Romans into believing in his grift.

Change gears by focusing not on generals nor queens but on a group of truly unsung heroes: antiquity’s yeoman farmers. Examine the agricultural methods—plowing, sowing, and composting among them—that kept small farms afloat. And, evaluate the outsized burden these farmers bore as the ancient world’s leading producers.